PERU AND ITS FASCINATING HISTORY
*The Pre-Inkas Cultures. Over the course of 5000 years, pre-Inca cultures settled along the
Peruvian coast and highlands. The power and influence of some civilizations was to hold sway over
large swaths of territory, which during their decline, gave way to minor regional centres. Many of
them stood out for their ritual pottery, their ability to adapt and superb management of their natural
resources; a vast knowledge from which later the Inka Empire was to draw.
-A few Peruvian civilizations settled in Wantar (Ancash) in around (1200 - 1000 BC). The
power of the civilization, based on nature, was centred in the Chavin de Wantar, temple, whose walls
and galleries were filled with sculptures of feline features.
-The Parakas culture (200 AD - 600 BC) rose to power along the south coast, and was to craft
superb skills in textile weaving considering into the best of the ancient civilizations of the world.
-The north coast was dominated by the Mochika civilization (200 AD - 600 BC). The culture was
led by authorities in the coastal valleys, such as the Lord of Sipan. The Mochika pots which featured
portraits, and their iconography in general were surprisingly detailed and showed great skill in
design.
-The highlands saw the rise of the Pukara and Tiwanaku culture (500 AD) based in the Kollao
region (which covered parts of modern-day Bolivia and Chile). The Tiawanaku were to bequeath a
legacy of agricultural and the management of a variety of ecological zones.
-The Nasca culture (300 AD - 900 BC) were able to tame the coastal desert by bringing water
through underground aqueducts. They carved out vast geometric and animal figures on the desert
floor, a series of symbols forming part of an agricultural calendar which even today baffles
researchers.
-The Wari culture (600 AD) introduced urban settlements in the Ayacucho area and expanded its
influence across the Andes.
-The refined Chimu culture (1100 - 1500) crafted gold and other metals into relics and built the
mud-brick citadel of Chan Chan, near the northern coastal city of Trujillo. -The Chachapoyas
culture (800 AD) made the best possible use of arable land and built their constructions on top of
the highest mountains in the northern cloud forest. The vast Kuelap city is a fine example of how
they adapted to their environment.
*The Inka empire (1200 - 1500 BC) was possibly the most organized civilization in South America.
Their economic system, distribution of wealth, artistic manifestations and architecture impressed the
first of the christian chroniclers.
The Inkas honoured the Mother Earth, Pachamama and the Sun (Inti). The Inka sovereign, lord of
the Tawantinsuyu, the Inka empire, was held to be sacred and to be the descendant of the Sun.
Thus, the legend of the origin of the Inkas tells how the sun sent his children Mallku Qhapaq and
Mama Ocllo (and in another version the four Ayar brothers and their wives) to found Cusco, the
sacred city and capital of the Inka empire.
The rapid expansion of the Inka Empire stemmed from their extraordinary organizational skills.
Communities were grouped, both as families and territorially, around the ayllu, their corner of the
empire, and even if villagers had to move away for work reasons, they did not lose their bond to the
ayllu. The Inka moved around large populations, either as a reward or punishment, and thus
consolidated the expansion while drawing heavily from the knowledge of the cultures that had
flourished prior to the Inkas.
The Inka's clan was the panaka, made up of relatives and descendants, except for the one who was
the Inka's successor, who would then form his own panaka. Sixteenth-century Spanish chroniclers
recorded a dynasty of 13 rulers, running from the legendary Mallku Qhapaq down to Atawallpa, who
was to suffer death at the hands of the christians.
The Tawantinsuyu expanded to cover part of what is modern-day Colombia to the north, Chile and
Argentina to the south and all of Ecuador and Bolivia.
The members of the panaka clans were Inka nobles, headed by the Inka sovereign. The power of
the clans and the Inka was tangible in every corner of the empire, but the might of the Inkas reached
its peak in the architecture of Cusco: the Korikancha or Temple of the Sun, Ollantaytambo and
Sacsaywaman, and above all the city of Machu Picchu.
For further information about the Inkas, click here: http://incas.perucultural.org.pe
*The arrival of the Christians. The encounter between the Inka culture and Hispanic culture got
underway as a result of the Christian invasion in the early sixteenth century. In 1532, the troops of
Francisco Pizarro captured Inka Atawallpa in the northern highland city of Cajamarca. The
indigenous population was to dwindle during the first few decades of christian rule, and the
Vice-regency of Peru was created in 1542 after a battle between the invaders themselves and the
Spanish Crown.
Spain's foothold in the New World was consolidated in the sixteenth century when Viceroy Francisco
de Toledo laid down a set of rules governing the colonial economy: the mita system used indigenous
labor to operate the mines and produce arts and crafts. These activities, together with a monopoly
over trade, formed the basis of the colonial economy. But the changeover in the dynasty and the
Borbon reforms in the eighteenth century sparked dissent among many social sectors. The main
indigenous uprising was led by Tupak Amaru II, which was to set rolling the Creole movement that
led to independence of Hispanic America from the Spanish crown in the early nineteenth century.
Until the seventeenth century, the Peruvian vice-regency covered an area stretching from Panama
down to Tierra del Fuego
Peruvian coast and highlands. The power and influence of some civilizations was to hold sway over
large swaths of territory, which during their decline, gave way to minor regional centres. Many of
them stood out for their ritual pottery, their ability to adapt and superb management of their natural
resources; a vast knowledge from which later the Inka Empire was to draw.
-A few Peruvian civilizations settled in Wantar (Ancash) in around (1200 - 1000 BC). The
power of the civilization, based on nature, was centred in the Chavin de Wantar, temple, whose walls
and galleries were filled with sculptures of feline features.
-The Parakas culture (200 AD - 600 BC) rose to power along the south coast, and was to craft
superb skills in textile weaving considering into the best of the ancient civilizations of the world.
-The north coast was dominated by the Mochika civilization (200 AD - 600 BC). The culture was
led by authorities in the coastal valleys, such as the Lord of Sipan. The Mochika pots which featured
portraits, and their iconography in general were surprisingly detailed and showed great skill in
design.
-The highlands saw the rise of the Pukara and Tiwanaku culture (500 AD) based in the Kollao
region (which covered parts of modern-day Bolivia and Chile). The Tiawanaku were to bequeath a
legacy of agricultural and the management of a variety of ecological zones.
-The Nasca culture (300 AD - 900 BC) were able to tame the coastal desert by bringing water
through underground aqueducts. They carved out vast geometric and animal figures on the desert
floor, a series of symbols forming part of an agricultural calendar which even today baffles
researchers.
-The Wari culture (600 AD) introduced urban settlements in the Ayacucho area and expanded its
influence across the Andes.
-The refined Chimu culture (1100 - 1500) crafted gold and other metals into relics and built the
mud-brick citadel of Chan Chan, near the northern coastal city of Trujillo. -The Chachapoyas
culture (800 AD) made the best possible use of arable land and built their constructions on top of
the highest mountains in the northern cloud forest. The vast Kuelap city is a fine example of how
they adapted to their environment.
*The Inka empire (1200 - 1500 BC) was possibly the most organized civilization in South America.
Their economic system, distribution of wealth, artistic manifestations and architecture impressed the
first of the christian chroniclers.
The Inkas honoured the Mother Earth, Pachamama and the Sun (Inti). The Inka sovereign, lord of
the Tawantinsuyu, the Inka empire, was held to be sacred and to be the descendant of the Sun.
Thus, the legend of the origin of the Inkas tells how the sun sent his children Mallku Qhapaq and
Mama Ocllo (and in another version the four Ayar brothers and their wives) to found Cusco, the
sacred city and capital of the Inka empire.
The rapid expansion of the Inka Empire stemmed from their extraordinary organizational skills.
Communities were grouped, both as families and territorially, around the ayllu, their corner of the
empire, and even if villagers had to move away for work reasons, they did not lose their bond to the
ayllu. The Inka moved around large populations, either as a reward or punishment, and thus
consolidated the expansion while drawing heavily from the knowledge of the cultures that had
flourished prior to the Inkas.
The Inka's clan was the panaka, made up of relatives and descendants, except for the one who was
the Inka's successor, who would then form his own panaka. Sixteenth-century Spanish chroniclers
recorded a dynasty of 13 rulers, running from the legendary Mallku Qhapaq down to Atawallpa, who
was to suffer death at the hands of the christians.
The Tawantinsuyu expanded to cover part of what is modern-day Colombia to the north, Chile and
Argentina to the south and all of Ecuador and Bolivia.
The members of the panaka clans were Inka nobles, headed by the Inka sovereign. The power of
the clans and the Inka was tangible in every corner of the empire, but the might of the Inkas reached
its peak in the architecture of Cusco: the Korikancha or Temple of the Sun, Ollantaytambo and
Sacsaywaman, and above all the city of Machu Picchu.
For further information about the Inkas, click here: http://incas.perucultural.org.pe
*The arrival of the Christians. The encounter between the Inka culture and Hispanic culture got
underway as a result of the Christian invasion in the early sixteenth century. In 1532, the troops of
Francisco Pizarro captured Inka Atawallpa in the northern highland city of Cajamarca. The
indigenous population was to dwindle during the first few decades of christian rule, and the
Vice-regency of Peru was created in 1542 after a battle between the invaders themselves and the
Spanish Crown.
Spain's foothold in the New World was consolidated in the sixteenth century when Viceroy Francisco
de Toledo laid down a set of rules governing the colonial economy: the mita system used indigenous
labor to operate the mines and produce arts and crafts. These activities, together with a monopoly
over trade, formed the basis of the colonial economy. But the changeover in the dynasty and the
Borbon reforms in the eighteenth century sparked dissent among many social sectors. The main
indigenous uprising was led by Tupak Amaru II, which was to set rolling the Creole movement that
led to independence of Hispanic America from the Spanish crown in the early nineteenth century.
Until the seventeenth century, the Peruvian vice-regency covered an area stretching from Panama
down to Tierra del Fuego
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*The birth of the Peruvian State. Peru was declared an independent nation by Jose
de San Martin in 1821, and in 1824 Simon Bolivar put an end to the War of
Independence. However, despite efforts to organize the young Peruvian republic, in
economic crisis and a tradition of military strongmen who gave civilians little chance to
govern.
By 1860, thanks to income from guano, cotton and sugar, Peru was able to do without
enforced labor imposed on the indigenous population and African slaves alike.
Chinese and European immigrants swelled the workforce and integrated with Peru's
society. The country was linked up by a railway network, and during the mandate of
President Manuel Pardo, Peru organized its first civilian government. The first
Japanese immigrants were to arrive at the end of the nineteenth century.
But in 1879, the country found itself at war with Chile. Peru was defeated and left
bankrupt. After another spell of military regimes, Peru returned to civilian rule, giving
rise to a time called "the Aristocratic Republic". The economy was dominated by the
land-owning elite, and an export-oriented model imposed. The success of the rubber
boom lent fresh splendor to the myth of El Dorado.
*Peru Today. The early part of the twentieth century was marked by a drawn-out
civilian dictatorship headed by President Augusto Leguia. The project to modernize
the country, creating works for a New Fatherland left the State heavily in debt and
unable to deal with the 1929 crash. It was also a time of intellectual creativity,
symbolized by the founder of the APRA party, Victor Raul Haya de la Torre and Jose
Carlos Mariategui, the father of Socialist beliefs in Peru and the centre of intellectual
and artistic thinking in the country during his short life.
After the fall of Leguia, military regimes once again rose to the forefront, despite
apparently having run their course with the presidencies of Prado in 1939 and
Bustamante y Rivero in 1945; but in 1948 a new military government was formed by
Manuel Odria. Over the next eight years, major public works were built amidst severe
political repression.
Peru, which has made major efforts to forge friendly relations with neigh-bor countries,
has managed to overcome long-running border conflicts. Navigation conditions along
the Amazon River led to agreements with Brazil, until in 1909 the frontier between the
two nations was finally established. After lengthy debate, the border treaty with
Colombia was approved by Congress in 1927, and Colombians were granted an
access route to the Amazon River. In 1929, after border disputes with Chile resulting
from armed conflict, the will to improve relations led both nations to sign a treaty
whereby the city of Tacna was returned to Peru.
The border with Bolivia was marked by mutual accord in 1932. Finally, after several
armed conflicts and diplomatic controversies with Ecuador, Peru in 1999 managed to
get the 1942 Rio Protocol to prevail, closing the final chapter of the dispute over the
territory within the Cordillera del Kondor mountain range, shoring up Peru's relations
with Ecuador.
In 1968, the armed forces staged a coup d'etat and overthrew then-President
Fernando Belaunde. The first few years of the military regime stood out from other
dictatorships in Latin America in that Peru's military had socialist sympathies. Led by
General Juan Velasco, the military regime expanded the role of the State in a bid to
solve the problems that had impoverished the country. Thus the State nationalized the
oil industry, the media and carried out an agrarian reform. Velasco was replaced by
General Francisco Morales-Bermudez, who bowed to public pressure and called for a
Constituent Assembly.
Belaunde was re-elected in 1980, but the deep-lying poverty spurred the birth of two
insurgencies which unleashed a wave of violence for over a decade. After the
government of Alan Garcia (1985-1990), Alberto Fujimori was elected president in
1990, but shut down Congress in 1992 and decreed an emergency government. He
was re-elected in 1995 and 2000, but public discontent forced him to call fresh
elections for 2001. Valentin Paniagua was then chosen to head a caretaker
government. In July 2001, Dr. Alejandro Toledo Manrique took office as the
Constitutional President of the Republic of Peru.
de San Martin in 1821, and in 1824 Simon Bolivar put an end to the War of
Independence. However, despite efforts to organize the young Peruvian republic, in
economic crisis and a tradition of military strongmen who gave civilians little chance to
govern.
By 1860, thanks to income from guano, cotton and sugar, Peru was able to do without
enforced labor imposed on the indigenous population and African slaves alike.
Chinese and European immigrants swelled the workforce and integrated with Peru's
society. The country was linked up by a railway network, and during the mandate of
President Manuel Pardo, Peru organized its first civilian government. The first
Japanese immigrants were to arrive at the end of the nineteenth century.
But in 1879, the country found itself at war with Chile. Peru was defeated and left
bankrupt. After another spell of military regimes, Peru returned to civilian rule, giving
rise to a time called "the Aristocratic Republic". The economy was dominated by the
land-owning elite, and an export-oriented model imposed. The success of the rubber
boom lent fresh splendor to the myth of El Dorado.
*Peru Today. The early part of the twentieth century was marked by a drawn-out
civilian dictatorship headed by President Augusto Leguia. The project to modernize
the country, creating works for a New Fatherland left the State heavily in debt and
unable to deal with the 1929 crash. It was also a time of intellectual creativity,
symbolized by the founder of the APRA party, Victor Raul Haya de la Torre and Jose
Carlos Mariategui, the father of Socialist beliefs in Peru and the centre of intellectual
and artistic thinking in the country during his short life.
After the fall of Leguia, military regimes once again rose to the forefront, despite
apparently having run their course with the presidencies of Prado in 1939 and
Bustamante y Rivero in 1945; but in 1948 a new military government was formed by
Manuel Odria. Over the next eight years, major public works were built amidst severe
political repression.
Peru, which has made major efforts to forge friendly relations with neigh-bor countries,
has managed to overcome long-running border conflicts. Navigation conditions along
the Amazon River led to agreements with Brazil, until in 1909 the frontier between the
two nations was finally established. After lengthy debate, the border treaty with
Colombia was approved by Congress in 1927, and Colombians were granted an
access route to the Amazon River. In 1929, after border disputes with Chile resulting
from armed conflict, the will to improve relations led both nations to sign a treaty
whereby the city of Tacna was returned to Peru.
The border with Bolivia was marked by mutual accord in 1932. Finally, after several
armed conflicts and diplomatic controversies with Ecuador, Peru in 1999 managed to
get the 1942 Rio Protocol to prevail, closing the final chapter of the dispute over the
territory within the Cordillera del Kondor mountain range, shoring up Peru's relations
with Ecuador.
In 1968, the armed forces staged a coup d'etat and overthrew then-President
Fernando Belaunde. The first few years of the military regime stood out from other
dictatorships in Latin America in that Peru's military had socialist sympathies. Led by
General Juan Velasco, the military regime expanded the role of the State in a bid to
solve the problems that had impoverished the country. Thus the State nationalized the
oil industry, the media and carried out an agrarian reform. Velasco was replaced by
General Francisco Morales-Bermudez, who bowed to public pressure and called for a
Constituent Assembly.
Belaunde was re-elected in 1980, but the deep-lying poverty spurred the birth of two
insurgencies which unleashed a wave of violence for over a decade. After the
government of Alan Garcia (1985-1990), Alberto Fujimori was elected president in
1990, but shut down Congress in 1992 and decreed an emergency government. He
was re-elected in 1995 and 2000, but public discontent forced him to call fresh
elections for 2001. Valentin Paniagua was then chosen to head a caretaker
government. In July 2001, Dr. Alejandro Toledo Manrique took office as the
Constitutional President of the Republic of Peru.